Introduction

Having been asked to present a survey of the achievements in the archaeology of Sudan's Western Desert, with regard to the motto of this conference ,<< Nubia Thirty Years Later >> the title of this paper could perhaps simply be B.O.S. Ten Years Later, giving just another summary of our research in this area. Yet instead of only repeating what has been written elsewhere I would like to discuss here a few preliminary conclusions and to focus on some cross cultural relations, especially between the Nile Valley and the West. This attempt is made although only a minor part of the excavated material has so far been definitely analysed and that it will be mainly based on a rather impressionistic view of some pottery sherds, that however can be projected into the framework of a fairly sufficient number of radiocarbon dates.

When the B.O.S. (Besiedlungsgeschichte der Ost-Sahara) project started its work in 1980 (Kuper 1981 ; 1989) almost no systematic prehistoric research had been carried out in the far west of Egypt and Sudan, but a number of findings and observations reported by earlier explorers had already thrown light on its archaeological potential. A comprehensive account of all of these is given by Friedrich Hinkel in the second volume of his Archaeological Map of the Sudan (Hinkel 1979) covering with 'The Area of the South Libyan Desert ' exactly the range of our interest and thus published just in time to be of great help for our plannings. In addition to Hinkel's catalogue there is only to mention the field work carried out by the University of Khartoum in the Upper Wadi Howar (Mohammed-Ali 1982, 45 ff.) and a survey trip of the Combined Prehistoric Expedition (CPE) in 1982 (Close 1987), during which some Early Holocene sites have been discovered west of Nukheila (Merga) (Close 1992, 160). Finally archaeological observations are also occasionally included in the field reports of the Geomorphological Laboratory of the Free University of Berlin (e.g. Kropelin 1993a, 118), whose long-term research work in the whole area provided valuable data for the environmental background of the holocene human occupation (Pachur 1987; Pachur et a1.1990).

In addition to this we owe our knowledge of the palaeoecology of the Libyan Desert mainly to Vance Haynes and his associates (Haynes 1987) and to the painstaking analysis of the charcoal samples of the B.O.S. missions by Katharina Neumann, who was able to demonstrate a shift of the Sahelian vegetation between 7000 and 6500 BP for at least 500 km northward up to southern Egypt

Fred Wendorf himself has set the sign post out of the dilemma when in his compilation of the Nubian campaign he created the tem ,'Ceramic Age ' which follows the Nubian Final Stone Age (Wendorf 1968, 1042, fig. 1). This is not the place to plunge into the discussion about the (non) adequacy of the term « Neolithic » in Northern Africa (Klees 1993) and Africa as a whole (Sinclair et al. 1993), but in general it seems more practical to define the stages on an archaeological time scale for a certain region by elementary archaeological features (such as stone, ceramic, bronze, iron) instead of secondary derived economic evidence, which is seldom available and often doubtful. Since the proofs for early ceramics are much more widespread than those for early holocene pastoralism and thus also much better suitable to establish a wide range comparative chronology  why not use the term « Ceramic » respectively ^"Keramikum" as already proposed by Richard Pittioni with regard to the special situation in Africa and the Near East more than 40 years ago (Pittioni 1950)? Already then he had included « Early Khartoum » in his concept, so that this group also needs not be labelled with the unsuitable term "Mesolithic", that has been created especially for the cultural and environmental adaptation to the early Holocene in Northern Europe.

With this terminology one achieves to subdivide a table featuring the more than 500 radiocarbon dates available from Northeastern Africa largely in accordance to the CPE chronology. Arranged in geographical order from North to South they produce a quite suggestive picture of a south and eastward retreat after the new onset of aridity around 6000 BP (c. 5000 BC). This impression is underlined by the lack of data before this time in both, the Egyptian Nile Valley and the Southern Libyan Desert, as discussed below. Brought into groupings according to their archaeological context they furnish a rather simplifying archaeological table that nevertheless should be helpful to illustrate some possible cross cultural relations that will be debated in the following. (Fig. 2: Chronological outline of regional groups in the Eastern Sahara and the Nile Valley. The first appearance of undecorated pottery after 7800 bp is marked).

B. O. S. Research Areas

Generally the B.O.S.project was designed along a transect from the Mediterranean down to the Sahel zone (Fig. 1), connecting the area of winter rains with that of tropical summer rains and thus enabling a comparison of the different ways of human adaptation to the changing local environments (Kuper 1981 ; 1989). Recently, Angela Close has published a synopsis of the holocene occupation of the Eastern Sahara, in which some of the major results of the project have been placed into their wider context (Close 1992). In Sudan research was concentrated in three main regions: the Selima Sandsheet, the Laqiya Area and the Wadi Howar.

The general appearance of the Selima Sandsheet is that of a featureless flat sand plain, only interrupted by a few dune fields and some rocky outcrops. Extending to about 300 km in diameter it encompasses the border between Egypt and Sudan as well as the actual border between winter and summer rains. It constitutes the most arid part of the whole Sahara. Proofs for man's presence like the rock engravings of Burg et Tuyur, already described by the early explorers (Newbold - Shaw 1928, 124; Rhotert 1952, 75) on the one side, and its apparent lack of archaeological sites (Gabriel 1986, 19) on the other, put up the question, if it had an effect as a buffer or as a turntable for interregional cultural contacts in the Eastern Sahara (Kuper 1986b). Special interest of archaeologists in the area was attracted by the discovery of the so called radar river system (McCauley et a!. 1986), yet nevertheless their role for the prehistoric settlement remained widely unsolved. In 1985 during a large scale B.O.S. survey carried out over an area of 30 x 55 km in the vicinity of Burg et Tuyur altogether 285 archaeological sites were to be registered, ranging in size from a few artefacts up to areas of more than 100 000 square metres (Schuck 1993). Some test excavations provided evidence for intensive settlement activities at least for the Middle and Late Ceramic period.

The southern limits of the Selima Sandsheet are marked by significant topographical features, not to be found on the available maps and mainlw unknown until satellite imagery was at hand: the high escarp north of the well of Laqiya Arbair. (Kuper 1986a, Fig. 2) and a few tectonically induced wadi-like depressions further west which have been named by Vance Haynes WadiShaw and Wadi Sahal (Schuck 1988, Abb.l). In its southwestern part Wadi Shaw shows a basin­shaped widening, where already in 1935 W.B.K. Shaw had discovered an extended archaeological site close to his camp 49. The area became the centre of our survey and excavation activities during the years 1982 and 198:i which allowed to reconstruct a sequence of settlement over more than 5000 years up to the times of the Middle Kingdom in Egypt (Schuck 1988. Abb. 5 ; 1989). Parallel to this research intensive geomorphological investigations gave evidence for widespread lake deposits accumulated in mo phases between 6 000 and 8000 BP, thus elucidating the ecological background for that period (Gabriel 1986; Gabriel - Kropelin 1984).

There is a distance of more than 300 km to the southernmost research area, the Wadi Howar. Already the Frobenius expedition in 1933 had recorded the enormous archaeological potential of the region and collected some pottery samples (Rhotert 1952, 2f. ; Holscher 1955, Abb. 5-I1). These were later a main reason to argue for an origin of the Nubian C-Group in this region (Bietak 1968, 143). An answer to the long open ques­tion, whether the Wadi Howar really is ending at Djebel Rahib, as shown on all maps, or whether there exists a connection with the Nile, was near­ly at the same time inferred from satellite pictures (Meissner - Schmitz 1983) and confirmed by a B.O.S. expedition which in 1984 followed the wadi bed from the Nile opposite Old Dongola « up­stream, for 400 km till Rahib wells. Since then evidence from intensive geomorphological investigation (Pachur - Kropelin 1987; Kropelin 1993a) has indicated that during the early and middle Holocene the Wadi Howar consisted of a continuous chain of wadi sections and permanent pools. After local rainfall these experienced seasonal flooding resulting into intermittent river activity and overflows from one sheet of water into the next. Still around 4000 BP there existed deep fresh water lakes, rich enough to maintain 17 different species of fish (Van Neer 1989, 63) providing an explanation for the archaeological wealth of the area even at this late date.

The Egyptian Background

Before we can try to sketch some lines of the ceramic development in Northern Sudan we should get a short insight into the situation in Egypt, since sometimes things become clearer when seen from the margins. With regard to the interrelations discussed below and especially because there are only a few data available from the Southern Libyan Desert for that period, the earliest phase of the Holocene can be passed shortly. Generally, the geographical division of the Holocene development in Western Egypt into two different zones becomes already visible then : there are altogether « Epipalaeolithic » assemblages with geometrics, backed bladelets and burins and so far no proofs for ceramic technology in the North (« Ain Dal­la,,, « Masara »), and the      ,Early Neolithic,, se­quence from « El Adam » to « El Nabta » with cat­tle and pottery in the South.

In the following Middle Ceramic phase of the 7th, and 6th. millennium BC we find shortly af­ter the onset of this period after 7800 BP well made, Khartoum related pottery as far North as Abu Ballas associated at Mudpans 85/56 with zoological and botanical remains that indicate a corresponding Sahelian environment (Kuper 1993). Together with this some undecorated sherds with carved rims are found (Fig. 4, 1.2), unknown from « classical » Khartoum assemblages but well represented at the same time around 7 700 BP by the vessel from Wadi el Akhdar 80/7-1 in the Gilf Kebir (Kuper 1981, 236, Abb. 13). Pottery without or with scarce decoration, that is restricted to the rim, occurs further north at Willmann's Camp (Glass Area 81/61) together with Khartoum related decorations, though its chronological position is not secure (Fig. 3, 1-7). This plain pot­tery seems to be significant for the area of the Great Sand Sea and beyond, where e.g. the notched rim (Fig. 3, 8) is to be found at the site of Lobo (Abu Minqar 81/55; Klees 1989) in con­text with a bifacial stone industry, which is the characteristic element in the Western Desert and the Oases at the latest since 7 500 BP (McDonald 1991 and unpublished radiocarbon dates from recent research at Djara on the Abu Muharik Plateau). At the same time the second half of the Middle Ceramic phase in Southwestern Egypt is furtheron characterized by microlithic industries, which are however - e.g. at Wadi Bakht site 82/21 in the Gilf Kebir - associated with well made pottery whose decoration consists only of fine carvings on the rim (Fig. 4, 3.4). The presence of this feature of decoration also at Djebel Kamil site 85/58 in the Egyptian part of the Selima Sandsheet (Fig. 4, 5.6) links it to corresponding Late Ceramic occurrences in Northern Sudan.

During that period environmental conditions in the Northern and Central Libyan Desert seem to have limited human life mainly to favoured areas like the Gilf Kebir Plateau. Here in Wadi El Akhdar a Wadi Bakht a characteristic, thin walled, skillfully made pottery is to be found, which shows a limited, but diagnostic spectrum of decorations. Among these the most common type seems to be a vessel of conical shape with a comb impressed herring bone band below the rim (Kuper 1988, Abb. 3). Its origin as that of other elements in the Late Ceramic Gilf group is subject to further research'.

The Southern Libyan Desert

Early and Middle Ceramic (before 5 000 BC = 6 000 BP)

In contrary to the Egyptian part of the desert the chronological table shows a remarkable dearth of data for the early Holocene in the Southern Libyan Desert. Nevertheless, there is little, but clear evidence for man's presence from two burials in the Laqiya Area, one dated to 9 820 ± 550 BP (KN 4029), the other to 8 810 ± 450 BP (KN 3353). Since the intensive Khartoum related settlement in Southern Egypt was dependent on the northward shift of the Sudanic vegetation, the lack of information can only be explained by our insufficient surveys, that were surely too limited and possibly also misplaced with regard to the preserva­tion conditions in certain areas and the perhaps unexpected behaviour of prehistoric man.

The situation changes during Middle Ceramic times after 7 000 BP when Khartoum related pot­tery occurs in several sites from the Wadi Howar through the Selima Sandsheet up to Abu Ballas. In the Selima Sandsheet widespread settlement ac­tivities could be detected (Schuck 1993) which demonstrate that this today most barren part of the desert was not only used as a passage area. Extended sites such as Burg et Tuyur 85/78 and 79 (Idris 1994a) show that favourable places like longer standing ponds attracted repeated seasonal visits and most probably even for some time a continuous settlement. This is confirmed by indications of a vegetation, rich enough to satisfy rhino and giant buffalo at Westend 85/80 (Van Neer - Uerpmann 1989, 329) and by the so far only remains of domestic animals, some bones of sheep/goat from a pit at Burg et Tuyur 85/73 dat­ed at 6 030 ± 160 BP (KN 4033), the first indica­tion for a « Neolithic,, Middle Ceramic in this region.

Late Ceramic

(5000-3000 BC = 6000-4300 BP)

In the Laqiya Area and the Selima Sandsheet the beginning of this stage seems to be marked by the occurrence of a hard, relatively thin walled and well burnished or even polished ware. Its technical standard corresponds to the quality of the late pottery from Gilf Kebir which is also represented by some sherds with the characteristic herring­bone ornament (Fig. 5, 4). Mainly, however, deco­ration is limited to the fine carved rim (Figs. 4, 11; 5, 1-3.5-7), a feature paralleling sites in southern Egypt as mentioned above and dated some hundred years earlier. On the other side this kind of decoration is matched also by some sherds from Abka (e.g. Nordstrom 1972, Pl. 141, 1-2), a view which is moreover confirmed by elements of the stone industry.

According to the sparse radiocarbon dates from VVadi Howar, at the same time further south wavy­line pottery was still in use. Stratigraphic evidence for this comes from one of the so called parabolic dunes east of Djebel Rahib (Gabriel et al. 1985; Kropelin 1993a, 85 ff.), where at Conical Hill 84/24 this type of pottery is dated to about 5800 BP. It is followed within this sequence around 5000 BP by a predominantly criss-cross pattern that further north has been defined as Laqiya Type (Kuper 1986a, Fig. 4 ; Schuck 1989, Fig. 2, 7-12), but appears also at several sites in Wadi Howar (Richter 1989). Its fabric and some elements of decoration clearly recall Khartoum tra­dition, but its general appearance puts it closer to other Khartoum derived assemblages such as Ra­hib 80/73 (Kuper 1981, Abb. 35; 1986, Fig. 2). The close resemblance between Laqiya sherds from Wadi Shaw and from Wadi Howar may perhaps suggest some kind of transhumance between the two areas, a model, that might well be in accordance with Pachur's hypothesis of disjunct vegetation areas (Pachur - Kroper 1984) and also with the fact that the dates in Wadi Shaw mainly are derived from hearths (« Steinplatze » ; Gabriel 1986, 16), but of course here further evidence is essential.

The Laqiya intermezzo in Wadi Shaw may perhaps have lasted only a short time, since after 5000 BP Wadi Howar and the Laqiya Area are going differing ways. While in the South the more east-west oriented Leiterband development starts, dated on top of the dune stratigraphy 84/24 to 4 600 BP (Keding 1993 and this conference), Wadi Shaw and Wadi Sahal are occupied by people with a completely different pottery, who settled in parts on hill tops and owned long horned cattle (Van Neer- Uerpmann 1989, 331). The ceramic material (Fig. 6, Cziesla 1986; Schuck 1988, Abb. 2. 1-6) comprises black mouthed ware, sherds with a red polished or rippled surface, rare painted designs, milled rims and a rocker-stamp pattern, made by spatula or comb impressions and sometimes polished only afterwards. For all of these features parallels exist among the material of the Nubian A-Group (cf. Nordstrom 1972, Pl. 161-181). But also looking into the other direction several of these elements are to be detected. Especially the fine comb-made herring bone ornament and its variants can be traced back to the Gilf Kebir, where they appear nearly 1 000 years earlier. Their way through the Selima Sandsheet is accompanied by other artefacts, like the specific grinding stone of

Gilf type (Kuper 1993, Fig. 6), that obviously in the Laqiya area was in use also later on, and in addition confirmed by a comparative study of stone knapping techniques between Wadi el Akhdar and Wadi Shaw site 83/120 .

The Peridynastie

(after 3 000 BC = 4 300 BP)

Parallel to the beginning of the dynastic period in Egypt also in Wadi Shaw a cultural break seems to have taken place. Near Shaw's Camp 49 more than 30 sharply outlined artefact scatters indicate a settlement pattern of largely contemporaneous, loosely grouped homesteads or compounds, obviously depending on a common walk-in-well (Francke 1986; Schuck 1988; 1989). Also a number of burials could be excavated, generally void of grave goods except a great number of ostrich eggshell beads likely belonging to clothing. The well preserved pottery from the settlement furnishes a large spectrum of shapes and ornaments. Many of them have their immediate parallels in the Kerma culture, some in the Nubian C-Group. But there is a considerable complex of very specific sherds combining different techniques and decoration patterns known from other desert sites. Thus the Camp 49 assemblage seems to be composed of different ceramic traditions which so far could not be differentiated in detail. To what extent in Wadi Shaw far reaching relations have to be taken into account is demonstrated by the fragment of a so called Maidum-Bowl, well diagnostic for the Old Kingdom in the Nile Valley and also for the site of Ayn-Asil near Dakhla (Ballet 1987). The chronological position is in accordance to four radiocarbon dates from its immediate context at Wadi Shaw site 82/52, that cluster around 2500 BC.

In Wadi Howar there is only little evidence for contacts with Wadi Shaw during that time, except for some adzes of Darfur type (Kuper 1986a, Fig. 3), which have their main distribution in the South. Towards the end of the Leiterband de­velopment ceramic sites, though still rich, seem to be concentrated at certain, ecologically favoured places (Richter 1989). The succeeding fairly heterogenous groups, comprising to a large extent fibre tempered pottery and geometrical ornaments, have not yet been studied in detail and radiocarbon dates are lacking so far. Nevertheless there is evidence for a continuous role of the Wadi Howar as a communication route between the Chad Basin and the Nile up to medieval times. The latest testimony has been provided in 1984 by the discovery of a spacious fortress 100 km west of the Nile. Covering an area of 120 x 220 m its walls are still standing up to 4 m high, furnished with well built butresses and staircases (Kuper 1988, Abb. 3, 7). Its origin might go back to the Meroitic period, which is represented by a num­ber of surface finds, while some constructive ele­ments of the walls attest that it was still in use dur­ing the Christian kingdom of Makuria.

Conclusion

Summarizing this short overview one has again to stress the general weakness of our data base. It is surely to be expected, that further analysis of the existing material together with new evidence from the field  perhaps supplying completely unknown archaeological units may soon lead to a revision of the following scenario.

With the onset of the Holocene rains shortly after 10 000 BP people from outside resettled the Eastern Sahara, that in the millennia before had experienced a higher degree of aridity than even today. In the Southern Libyan Desert they obvi­ously brought with them already well made pottery, decorated in the Early Khartoum style and - perhaps  restricted to certain areas - also cattle. Moving northward with the wetting front during the Middle Ceramic phase the Khartoum tradition might have developed in three alternative ways: (a) meeting and perhaps being influenced by a non-decorating pottery tradition (wherever the origins of this are to be searched), (b) generating out of itself a facies that gave up the mode of decoration or (c) stimulating people so far' without pottery to adopt ceramic technology, who, however, preferred not to ornament their pots. Which of the three possibilities will prove substantial is a crucial question of further research - especially with regard to the « Neolithisation » of the region. The Middle Ceramic phase as characterized above by the appearance of undecorated pottery might well have been imprinted by a Near Eastern influx carrying a new ceramic tradition together with sheep and goat as « Neolithic ,> representatives and - if they were not already present there for more than 2 000 years - also cattle.

Corresponding to the retreat of the Sudanic environment from western Eavpt around 6000 BP the plain pottery was extending its distribution southward (Fig. 2). At the beginning of the Late Ceramic it appeared with the significant technical features of that phase as far south as Wadi Shaw. There certain affinities to the Abkan can be noted, but the direction of influence remains a matter of guess-work. Along the Nile this group seems to be widely contemporaneous with the Khartoum Variant, while in Wadi Howar Early Khartoum pottery was still in use. Parallel to the different Khartoum-derived groups along the Nile, in the desert so far two offshoots can be described : the Rahib and the Laqiya group. Around 5000 BP the latter seems to have been the last representative of the Khartoum tradition in the Ladiya area.

Thereafter Wadi Howar and Laqiya area have witnessed a different evolution: in Wadi Shaw and Wadi Sahal A-Group-related pottery became common, comprising elements which suggest at least some of its roots in the Gilf Kebir area. At the same time in Wadi Howar - according to the results from Djabarona - the Leiterband sequence, that apparently has developed from Khar­toum Neolithic groups of Geili type, started flourishing. While later on missing data from Central Sudan after 5000 BP are indicating a long lasting hiatus there, the Wadi Howar ceramic development was carrying on. Obviously the « Yel­low Nile » was continuously able to attract human settlement and to act as an thoroughfare between inner Africa and the Nile Valley up to Christian times. In contrary to this life in the oasis-like settlement at Camp 49 in the Laqiya area ended in the second millennium BC yet providing with its far reaching peridynastic relations a vivid illustra­tion to pharaonic reports about the desert dwellers. Harkhuf surely did not travel in an unknown world.

Notes

I . Referring to the traditional name of the larger geographical unit as to the .. Libyan Desert, seems to be still today more adequate than terms like « Western Sudan >. « Western Nubia, or  Western Desert , which are perhaps politically more suitable, but scientifically less appropriate to characterize the area as a constituent of the vast scenery - including parts of Egypt and Libya - that provided a special environmental framework for the human development.

2. This also has to show to what extent the Gilf industries reflect local rather than more general cultural developments. In view of the actual state of our knowledge it can certainly not be regarded as a point from where the whole Late Neolithic of Northeastern Africa can be assessed and even regionally sub­divided, especially if the basis for this are only single elements that, moreover, are characterized not only as technologically and culturally different and geographically separated, but also as not contemporaneous  !

3. There seems to be an uncertainty concerning the dates from Wadi Howar which nearly exclusively come from bones. At several other sites, where bones have been dated parallel to charcoal or ostrich eggshell from the same context, they - also if corrected for C13 - turned out to be about 300 vears too young. Perhaps this factor has to be taken into account also for the Wadi Howar dates.

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